Which qualitative research tradition focuses on understanding a defined culture?

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.

University of Utah College of Nursing, (n.d.). What is qualitative research? [Guide] Retrieved from https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php#what 

The following video will explain the fundamentals of qualitative research.

Qualitative research is a form of social inquiry.  It is important to understand that qualitative research is not a single type of social inquiry.  Qualitative research emerges from a number of different research traditions or disciplines. As a result, there is great variation in approaches for doing qualitative research, and these approach are often in conflict. 

While there is great variation in qualitative research approaches, the following two features emerge across approaches:

• interpretive - qualitative research focuses on understanding the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live

• naturalistic - qualitative research studies social phenomena in their natural settings 

Qualitative research:

• Developed in the social and human sciences (hermenutics, phenomenoloy, sociology).

• Involves the use and study of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional and visual texts.

• Typically involves gathering empirical materials using some form of observation or interviewing method.

Some definitions:

"Qualitative research is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live.  A number of different approaches exist within the wider framework of this type of research, but most of these have the same aim: to understand the social reality of individuals, groups and cultures.  Researchers use qualitative approaches to explore the behavior, perspectives and experiences of the people they study.  The basis of qualitative research lies in the interpretive approach to social reality." (Holloway, 1997, p.2)

"Qualitative research, also called naturalistic inquiry, developed within the social and human sciences, and refers to theories on interpretation (hermeneutics) and human experience (phenomenology). They include various strategies for systematic collection, organization and interpretation of textual material obtained while talking with people or through observation.  The aim of such research is to investigate the meaning of social phenomena as experiened by the people themselves." (Malterud, 2001, p. 398).

"Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.  This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.  Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials � case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional and visual texts � that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals' lives." (Denzin, NK & Lincoln, YS, 2004, p. 2).

Resources

Holloway, I. (1997). Basic Concepts for Qualitative Research. Oxford. Blackwell Science.

Malterud, K. (2001). The art and science of clinical knowledge: Evidence beyond measures and numbers. The Lancet. 358: 397-400.

Denzin, NK & Lincoln, YS. (1994). "Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research." In NK Denzin and YS Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research. pp. 1-18. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Click here to return to Qualitative Research - Background

Quantitative is measurable. It is often associated with a more traditional scientific method of gathering data in an organized, objective manner so that findings can be generalized to other persons or populations. Quantitative designs are based on probabilities or likelihood—it utilizes ‘p’ values, power analysis, and other scientific methods to ensure the rigor and reproducibility of the results to other populations. Quantitative designs can be experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or correlational.

Qualitative is usually more subjective, although like quantitative research, it also uses a systematic approach. Qualitative research is generally preferred when the clinical question centers around life experiences or meaning. Qualitative research explores the complexity, depth, and richness of a particular situation from the perspective of the informants—referring to the person or persons providing the information. This may be the patient, the patient’s caregivers, the patient’s family members, etc. The information may also come from the investigator’s or researcher’s observations. At the heart of qualitative research is the belief that reality is based on perceptions and can be different for each person, often changing over time.

Quantitative design methods

Quantitative designs typically fall into four categories: experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or correlational. Let’s talk about these different types. But before we begin, we need to briefly review the difference between independent and dependent variables.

The independent variable is the variable that is being manipulated, or the one that varies. It is sometimes called the ‘predictor’ or ‘treatment’ variable.

The dependent variable is the outcome (or response) variable. Changes in the dependent variables are presumed to be caused or influenced by the independent variable.

Experimental

In experimental designs, there are often treatment groups and control groups. This study design looks for cause and effect (if A, then B), so it requires having control over at least one of the independent, or treatment variables. Experimental design administers the treatment to some of the subjects (called the ‘experimental group’) and not to others (called the ‘control group’). Subjects are randomly assigned—meaning that they would have an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or the experimental group. This is the strongest design for testing cause and effect relationships because randomization reduces bias. In fact, most researchers believe that a randomized controlled trail is the only kind of research study where we can infer cause (if A, then B). The difficulty with a randomized controlled trial is that the results may not be generalizable in all circumstances with all patient populations, so as with any research study, you need to consider the application of the findings to your patients in your setting. 

Quasi-experimental

Quasi-Experimental studies also seek to identify a cause and effect (causal) relationship, although they are less powerful than experimental designs. This is because they lack one or more characteristics of a true experiment. For instance, they may not include random assignment or they may not have a control group. As is often the case in the ‘real world’, clinical care variables often cannot be controlled due to ethical, practical, or fiscal concerns. So, the quasi experimental approach is utilized when a randomized controlled trial is not possible. For example, if it was found that the new treatment stopped disease progression, it would no longer be ethical to withhold it from others by establishing a control group.

Descriptive

Descriptive studies give us an accurate account of the characteristics of a particular situation or group. They are often used to determine how often something occurs, the likelihood of something occurring, or to provide a way to categorize information. For example, let’s say we wanted to look at the visiting policy in the ICU and describe how implementing an open-visiting policy affected nurse satisfaction. We could use a research tool, such as a Likert scale (5 = very satisfied and 1 = very dissatisfied), to help us gain an understanding of how satisfied nurses are as a group with this policy.

Correlational

Correlational research involves the study of the relationship between two or more variables. The primary purpose is to explain the nature of the relationship, not to determine the cause and effect. For example, if you wanted to examine whether first-time moms who have an elective induction are more likely to have a cesarean birth than first-time moms who go into labor naturally, the independent variables would be ‘elective induction’ and ‘go into labor naturally’ (because they are the variables that ‘vary’) and the outcome variable is ‘cesarean section.’ Even if you find a strong relationship between elective inductions and an increased likelihood of cesarean birth, you cannot state that elective inductions ‘cause’ cesarean births because we have no control over the variables. We can only report an increased likelihood.   

Qualitative design methods

Qualitative methods delve deeply into experiences, social processes, and subcultures. Qualitative study generally falls under three types of designs: phenomenology, ethnography and grounded theory.

Phenomenology

In this approach, we want to understand and describe the lived experience or meaning of persons with a particular condition or situation. For example, phenomenological questions might ask “What is it like for an adolescent to have a younger sibling with a terminal illness?” or “What is the lived experience of caring for an older house-bound dependent parent?”

Ethnography

Ethnographic studies focus on the culture of a group of people. The assumption behind ethnographies is that groups of individuals evolve into a kind of ‘culture’ that guides the way members of that culture or group view the world. In this kind of study, the research focuses on participant observation, where the researcher becomes an active participant in that culture to understand its experiences. For example, nursing could be considered a professional culture, and the unit of a hospital can be viewed as a subculture. One example specific to nursing culture was a study done in 2006 by Deitrick and colleagues. They used ethnographic methods to examine problems related to answering patient call lights on one medical surgical inpatient unit. The single nursing unit was the ‘culture’ under study.

Grounded theory

Grounded theory research begins with a general research problem, selects persons most likely to clarify the initial understanding of the question, and uses a variety of techniques (interviewing, observation, document review to name a few) to discover and develop a theory. For example, one nurse researcher used a grounded theory approach to explain how African American women from different socioeconomic backgrounds make decisions about mammography screening. Because African American women historically have fewer mammograms (and therefore lower survival rates for later stage detection), understanding their decision-making process may help the provider support more effective health promotion efforts. 

This article originally appeared July 2, 2020. It was updated to reflect current practice on March 21, 2021.

Which qualitative research tradition focuses on understanding phenomena within a cultural context?

Which type of qualitative research questions emphasizes trying to understand the culture of a group people?

What is research tradition in qualitative research?

Which type of qualitative research provides a framework for studying cultures?