Socialization Throughout the Life SpanSocialization is the lifelong process of preparing an individual to live within his or her own society. Show
Learning Objectives Discuss the concept of both primary and secondary socialization as a lifelong process which begins in infancy and continues into late adulthood Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Socialization refers to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies that provide an individual with the skills necessary for participating within society. Socialization is a
process that continues throughout an individual's life. Some social scientists say socialization represents the process of learning throughout life and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs and actions of adults as well as of children. Primary and Secondary SocializationThe socialization process can be divided into primary and secondary socialization. Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. This is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. Secondary socialization is the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society like schools and workplaces. For example, as new employees become socialized in an organization, they learn about its history, values, jargon, culture and procedures. The Life Course ApproachThe life course approach was developed in the 1960s for analyzing people's lives within structural, social and cultural contexts. Origins of this approach can be traced to such pioneering studies as Thomas's and Znaniecki's "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America" from the 1920s or Mannheim's essay on the "Problem of generations. " The life course approach examines an individual's life history and how early events influence future decisions. Life Course Approach: The life course approach studies the impact that sociocultural contexts have on an individual's development, from infancy until old age. The Life CourseThe life course approach analyzes people's lives within structural, social, and cultural contexts. Learning Objectives Explain the life course perspective as it relates to a person's development from infancy to old age, in terms of structural, social and cultural contexts Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The life course approach, also known as the life
course perspective, or life course theory, refers to an approach developed in the 1960s for analyzing people's lives within structural, social, and cultural contexts. Origins of this approach can be traced to pioneering studies such as Thomas's and Znaniecki's "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America" from the 1920s or Mannheim's essay on the "Problem of generations". Old Age: This man is well into his later years and depicts life in its final stages. In many countries, such as Sweden and the United States, adulthood legally begins at the age of eighteen. This is a major age milestone that is marked by significantly different attitudes toward the person who undergoes the transition. This is an example that demonstrates the influence of developmental stages on legal determinations of life stages, and thus, attitudes towards people at different stages of the human life course. Infant: This picture depicts an individual at the earliest of life stages. Anticipatory Socialization and ResocializationAnticipatory socialization comes from an individual's desire to join a group while resocialization is imposed upon an individual by a group. Learning Objectives Explain the two steps associated with the resocialization process and how people use anticipatory socialization as a means to gain entrance into desired social groups Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Anticipatory Socialization Anticipatory socialization is the process by which non-group-members adopt the values and standards of groups that they aspire to join, so as to ease their entry into the group and help them interact appropriately once they have been accepted. It involves changing one's attitudes and behaviors in preparation for a shift in one's role. Practices commonly associated with anticipatory socialization include grooming, play-acting, training, and rehearsing.
Examples of anticipatory socialization include law school students learning how to behave like lawyers, older people preparing for retirement, and Mormon boys getting ready to become missionaries. Resocialization Resocialization is defined as radically changing someone's personality by carefully controlling their environment. Total institutions aim to radically alter residents' personalities through deliberate manipulation of their environment. Key examples include the process of resocializing new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers (or, in other words, as members of a cohesive unit) and the reverse process,
in which those who have become accustomed to such roles return to society after military discharge. Resocialization may also be required for inmates who come out of prison and need to acclimate themselves back into civilian life. Guitar Lessons: The young woman is interacting with her professor in anticipation of being associated with other guitarists Stages of Socialization Throughout the Life SpanThe socialization process can be separated into two main stages: primary socialization and secondary socialization. Learning Objectives Give examples of how the socialization process progresses throughout a person's life Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Socialization is a life process, but is generally divided into two parts: primary and secondary socialization. Primary Socialization: The nuclear family serves as the primary force of socialization for young children. Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent. Secondary socialization refers to the socialization that takes place throughout one's life, both as a child and as one encounters new groups that require additional socialization. While there are scholars who argue that only one or the other of these occurs, most social scientists tend to combine the two, arguing that the basic or core identity of the individual develops during primary socialization, with more specific changes occurring later—secondary socialization—in response to the acquisition of new group memberships and roles and differently structured social situations. The need for later-life socialization may stem from the increasing complexity of society with its corresponding increase in varied roles and responsibilities. Secondary Socialization: By the time individuals are in their preteen or teenage years, peer groups play a more powerful role in socialization than family members. Mortimer and Simmons outline three specific ways these two parts of socialization differ:
Socialization is, of course, a social process. As such, it involves interactions between people. Socialization, as noted in the distinction between primary and secondary, can take place in multiple contexts and as a result of contact with numerous groups. Some of the more significant contributors to the socialization process are: parents, guardians, friends, schools, siblings or other family members, social clubs (like religions or sports teams), life partners (romantic or platonic), and
co-workers. Each of these groups include a culture that must be learned and to some degree appropriated by the socializee in order to gain admittance to the group. ChildhoodChildhood has been constructed in different ways over time, though modern childhood is often defined by play, learning and socializing. Learning Objectives Evaluate the importance of childhood (early, middle and adolescence) in terms of socialization and acceptance in
society Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to adolescence. In developmental psychology, childhood is divided up into the developmental stages of toddlerhood (learning to walk), early childhood (play age), middle childhood (school age), and adolescence ( puberty through post-puberty). Age Ranges of ChildhoodThe term childhood is non-specific and can imply a varying range of years in human development, depending on biological, personal, religious, cultural, or national interpretations. Developmentally and biologically, it refers to the period between infancy and puberty. In common terms, childhood is considered to start from birth. Some consider that childhood, as a concept of play and innocence, ends at adolescence. In the legal systems of many countries, there is an age of majority at which point childhood officially ends and a person legally becomes an adult. Globally, the age of majority ranges anywhere from 15 to 21, with 18 being the most common. Developmental Stages of Childhood Early childhood follows
the infancy stage and begins with toddlerhood, reached when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently. Toddlerhood ends around age three when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs and early childhood continues approximately through years seven or eight. According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, early childhood spans the from birth to age eight. Modern Concepts of Childhood The concept of childhood appears to evolve and change shape as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. Some believe that children should not have any worries and should not have to work; life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is generally a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference, aside from parents. It is a time of learning
about responsibilities without having to deal with adult responsibilities. PlayPlay is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children. It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics, and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination and allows children to interact with the world around them. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as with some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, practicing adult roles, and resolving conflicts. Play: Play is essential for the cognitive, physical, and social wellbeing of children. Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play is controlled by adults,
children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them, particularly in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills. Kids playing in the street: Children street culture transforms seemingly normal places into imaginative worlds AdolescenceAdolescence is a period of significant cognitive, physical and social development, including changes in family and peer relationships. Learning Objectives Discuss the influences on, and significance of, adolescent socialization and development, culminating in the development of autonomy Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development, generally occurring between puberty and legal adulthood. Though the period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years,
chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition. Thus, a thorough understanding of adolescence depends on information from various perspectives, most importantly from the areas of psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these disciplines, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood with the purpose of preparing children for adult roles. Peer Relationships Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of
the opposite sex much more than in childhood and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. Romance and Sexual Activity Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53 percent of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months. A 2002 American study found that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17 for males and
17.3 for females. As individuals develop into mature adolescents, there is an increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship, which can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment). Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life and contribute to development of feelings of self-worth. AutonomyAdolescents strive for autonomy. According to McElhaney et al., there are three ways in which autonomy can be described:
Adolescent Flirtation: Adolescence is a time of social and sexual exploration. Transitional AdulthoodComing of age traditions, while different across the world, are seen in almost every society. Learning Objectives Discuss how a young
person "comes of age", particularly in the context of religion or rituals Key TakeawaysKey Points
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"Coming of age" refers to a young person's transition from childhood to adulthood. The age at which this transition takes place varies among different societies, as does the nature of the transition. It can be a simple legal convention or can be part of a larger ritual. In some societies today, such changes are associated with the arrival of sexual maturity in early adolescence; in others, it is associated with the arrival of an age at which point one carries religious responsibilities. In western societies, legal conventions stipulate points in late adolescence or early adulthood that mark the age of maturity are the focus of the transition. Still, many cultures retain ceremonies to confirm the coming of age and benefits come with the change. Religion Religion is often a determinant of when and how individuals come of age. Professional Initiatory Rituals Coming of age initiation rituals can occur in various professional organizations. In many universities of Europe, South America and
India, first year students are made to undergo tests or humiliation before being accepted as students. Perhaps the oldest of these is "Raisin Monday," which is still ongoing is at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. A senior student will take a new student and show him or her around the university. In gratitude, the new student will give the senior student a pound of raisins, for which the senior student gave receipts. If a new student later fails to produce the receipt that demonstrated
his gift upon command, he could be thrown into a fountain. Bar Mitzvah: This thirteen-year-old boy is dressed in the religious garb and symbols of the Jewish faith on the day of his bar mitzvah. He is about to be recognized as an adult by the Jewish community. Marriage and ResponsibilityPeople marry for love, for socioeconomic stability, to start a family, and to create obligations between one another. Learning Objectives Assess the importance of the institution of marriage, as well as the various reasons why people enter into a marriage Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Marriage is a governmentally, socially, or religiously recognized interpersonal relationship, usually intimate and sexual, that is often created as a form of contract. The most frequently occurring form of marriage is between a woman and a man, where the feminine term wife and the masculine husband are generally used to describe the parties to the contract. Some countries and American states recognize same-sex marriage, but gaining recognition for these unions is a legal battle occurring around the world. Same-Sex Marriage: In some states and countries, homosexual couples can get legally married. The ceremony in which a marriage is enacted and announced to the community is called a wedding. The reasons people marry vary widely, but usually include publicly and formally
declare their love, the formation of a single household unit, legitimizing sexual relations and procreation, social and economic stability, and the education and nurturing of children. A marriage can be declared by a wedding ceremony, which may be performed either by a religious officiator or through a similar government-sanctioned secular process. The act of marriage creates obligations between the individuals involved and, in some societies, between the parties' extended families. Marriages
are perpetual agreements with legal consequences, terminated only by the death of one party or by formal dissolution processes, such as divorce and annulment. Wedding: In many countries, heterosexual weddings have the women dress in traditional white with a veil and the men in a tuxedo. The Middle YearsMiddle adulthood is generally accompanied by a decline in physical health and fertility, and an increase in ability to cope with stress. Learning Objectives Discuss the implications of middle age in terms of fading physical health and mortality concerns Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Middle age is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old age. Various attempts have been made to define this age, which is around the third quarter of the average life span. The U.S. Census lists middle age as including people aged from 35 to 54, while developmental psychologist Erik Erikson argues that middle adulthood occurs from the
age of 40 until 65. Middle Age: Diana DeGette, a politician from Colorado, was born in 1957 and is in the middle age stage of life. ParenthoodParenting is the process of supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Learning Objectives Contrast the four parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Parenting is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship. Parenting is usually carried out by the biological parents of the
child in question, although governments and society take a role as well. Parenting StylesDevelopmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early child development: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style. These four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand, and demand and control on the other.
There is no single or definitive model of parenting. What may be right for one family or one child may not be suitable for another, although research shows that the authoritative parenting style is extremely effective and yields self-reliant, cheerful, and friendly children. Various Parenting Practices
Parenting across the Lifespan Family planning is the decision whether and when to become parents, including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Parents should assess whether they
have the required financial resources (the raising of a child costs around $16,198 yearly in the United States). They should also assess whether their family situation is stable enough and whether they themselves are responsible and qualified enough to raise a child. Reproductive health and preconceptional care affect pregnancy, reproductive success, and maternal and child physical and mental health. During pregnancy, the unborn child is affected by many decisions that his or her parents make,
particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative impact on the child in utero. Parenting: Parents have to tend more to children's basic needs when they are young. Career Development: Vocation and IdentityA vocation is an occupation to which an individual is particularly drawn. Learning Objectives Define the meaning of the word "vocation" and how it impacts the choices people make as far as occupations are concerned Key TakeawaysKey Points
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A vocation
is a term for an occupation to which a person is especially drawn or for which he or she is suited, trained, or qualified. Though now often used in non-religious contexts, the meanings of the term originated in Christianity. Professional Vocations: In common parlance, a vocation refers to one's professional line of work or career, such as being a doctor. The Older YearsOld age cannot be exactly defined, but it is often associated with certain activities, such as becoming a grandparent or entering retirement. Learning Objectives Discuss some of the implications of old age, particularly in relation to Erikson's "Eight Stages of Life" and age discrimination Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The boundary between middle age and old age cannot be defined exactly because it does not have the same meaning in all societies. People can be considered old because of certain changes in their activities or social
roles. For example, people may be considered old when they become grandparents, or when they begin to do less or different work (retirement). Traditionally, the age of 60 was generally seen as the beginning of old age. Most developed world countries have accepted the chronological age of 65 years as a definition of an "elderly" or older person. Are We Prisoners of Socialization?Who we are as people is determined by both our genes (nature) and our socialization (nurture). Learning Objectives Discuss socialization in
terms of the nature (biology) versus nurture (social) debate Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Some experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture—the relationships
and caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely in genetics. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on nature. Nature or Nurture?: "Nature versus nurture" describes the debate over the influence of biological versus social influences in socialization. Sociologists all recognize the importance of socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But how do scholars
working in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this topic? Structural functionalists would say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate successfully within it and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations. Without socialization, a society’s culture would perish as members died off. A conflict theorist might argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by conveying different
expectations and norms to those with different social characteristics. For example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social class, and race. As in the illustration of Chris Langan, this creates different (unequal) opportunities. An interactionist studying socialization is concerned with face-to-face exchanges and symbolic communication. For example, dressing baby boys in blue and baby girls in pink is one small way that messages are conveyed about differences in gender
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What are the people groups or social institutions that help to socialize us called?An individual usually learns these aspects of culture and society social groups called agents of socialization. There are five main agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, religious organization and mass media.
Which type of socialization begins at home?Primary Socialization: The nuclear family serves as the primary force of socialization for young children. Primary socialization takes place early in life, as a child and adolescent.
Why is socialization so important for human beings?Socializing not only staves off feelings of loneliness, but also it helps sharpen memory and cognitive skills, increases your sense of happiness and well-being, and may even help you live longer. In-person is best, but connecting via technology also works.
What is the process by which people learn characteristics of their groups norms values attitudes and behaviors?Socialization is the process by which people learn characteristics of their group's norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors. Newborns are not born human—at least not in the social or emotional sense of being human.
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