Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in psychology, sociology and behavioral economics.[1] Show
Although the reality of most of these biases is confirmed by reproducible research,[2][3] there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them.[4] Several theoretical causes are known for some cognitive biases, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing[5]). Gerd Gigerenzer has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.[6] Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise,[5] or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at the same time.[7][8] There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of social skill; a way to establish a connection with the other person.[9] Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example, loss aversion has been shown in monkeys and hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats, pigeons, and monkeys.[10] Belief, decision-making and behavioral[edit]These biases affect belief formation, reasoning processes, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general. Anchoring bias[edit]The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject).[11][12] Anchoring bias includes or involves the following:
Apophenia[edit]The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things.[17] The following are types of apophenia:
Availability heuristic[edit]The availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be.[20] The availability heuristic includes or involves the following:
Cognitive dissonance[edit]
Confirmation bias[edit]Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.[31] There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias:
Egocentric bias[edit]Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a higher opinion of oneself than reality.[34] The following are forms of egocentric bias:
Extension neglect[edit]The following are forms of extension neglect:
False priors[edit]
Biases based on false priors include:
Framing effect[edit]The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Forms of the framing effect include:
Logical fallacy[edit]Logical fallacy biases include:
Prospect theory[edit]The following relate to prospect theory:
Self-assessment[edit]
Truthiness[edit]
Other[edit]
[edit]Association fallacy[edit]Association fallacies include:
Attribution bias[edit]Attribution bias includes:
Conformity[edit]Conformity is involved in the following:
Ingroup bias[edit]Ingroup bias is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. It is related to the following:
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Memory [edit]In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including: Misattribution of memory[edit]The misattributions include:
Other[edit]
See also[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
References[edit]
External links[edit]
What term does sociology use for a behavior that is expected of someone who holds a social position?role, in sociology, the behaviour expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status. A role is a comprehensive pattern of behaviour that is socially recognized, providing a means of identifying and placing an individual in a society.
What is the sociological term for the ability to see the world from someone else's perspective?In summary, sociological imagination is an ability to see the context which shapes your individual decision making, as well as the decisions made by others.
Which term is used by sociologists to refer to a set of expectations or behaviors for people who occupy a given social position or status?social role. term used by sociologists to refer to a set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position or status. a series of social relationships that link a person directly to others and therefore indirectly to still more people. A social network.
What do sociologists mean by deviance quizlet?The sociological definition of deviance is behavior that is recognized as violating expected rules and norms.
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