Which of the following is the best example of a passive gene-by-environment interaction?

Abstract

We propose a theory of development in which experience is directed by genotypes. Genotypic differences are proposed to affect phenotypic differences, both directly and through experience, via 3 kinds of genotype → environment effects: a passive kind, through environments provided by biologically related parents; an evocative kind, through responses elicited by individuals from others; and an active kind, through the selection of different environments by different people. The theory adapts the 3 kinds of genotype-environment correlations proposed by Plomin, DeFries, and Loehlin in a developmental model that is used to explain results from studies of deprivation, intervention, twins, and families.

Journal Information

As the flagship journal of the Society for Research in Child Development, Child Development has published articles, essays, reviews, and tutorials on various topics in the field of child development since 1930. Spanning many disciplines, the journal provides the latest research, not only for researchers and theoreticians, but also for child psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, psychiatric social workers, specialists in early childhood education, educational psychologists, special education teachers, and other researchers.

Publisher Information

Wiley is a global provider of content and content-enabled workflow solutions in areas of scientific, technical, medical, and scholarly research; professional development; and education. Our core businesses produce scientific, technical, medical, and scholarly journals, reference works, books, database services, and advertising; professional books, subscription products, certification and training services and online applications; and education content and services including integrated online teaching and learning resources for undergraduate and graduate students and lifelong learners. Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of information and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Wiley has published the works of more than 450 Nobel laureates in all categories: Literature, Economics, Physiology or Medicine, Physics, Chemistry, and Peace. Wiley has partnerships with many of the world’s leading societies and publishes over 1,500 peer-reviewed journals and 1,500+ new books annually in print and online, as well as databases, major reference works and laboratory protocols in STMS subjects. With a growing open access offering, Wiley is committed to the widest possible dissemination of and access to the content we publish and supports all sustainable models of access. Our online platform, Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) is one of the world’s most extensive multidisciplinary collections of online resources, covering life, health, social and physical sciences, and humanities.

References

Abbott, A., & Bartlett, D. (2001). Infant motor development and equipment use in the home. Child, Care, and Development, 27, 295–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8–17-year-olds: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1052–1063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baumrind, D. (1993). The average respectable environment is not good enough: A response to Scarr. Child Development, 64, 1299–1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boivin, M., Pérusse, D., Dionne, G., Saysset, V., Zoccolillo, M., Tarabulsy, G. M., et al. (2005). The genetic–environmental etiology of parents' perceptions and self-assessed behaviours toward their 5-month-old infants in a large twin and singleton sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 612–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boomsma, D. I., de Geus, E. J. C., van Baal, G. C. M., & Koopmans, J. R. (1999). A religious upbringing reduces the influence of genetic factors on disinhibition: Evidence for interaction between genotype and environment on personality. Twin Research, 2, 115–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Borkenau, P., Riemann, R., Angleitner, A., & Spinath, F. M. (2002). Similarity of childhood experiences and personality resemblance in monozygotic and dizygotic twins: A test of the equal environments assumption. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 261–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bouchard, T. Jr. (2004). Genetic influence on human psychological traits: A survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 148–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bradley, R. H. (1993). Children's home environments, health, behavior, and intervention efforts: A review using the home inventory as a maker measure. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 119, 439–480.Google Scholar

Bradley, R. H. (2006). Home environment. In Watt, N., Ayoub, C., Bradley, R. H., Puma, J., & LaBoeuf, W. (Eds.), The crisis in youth mental health: Vol. 4. Early intervention programs and policies (pp. 89–120). Westport, CT: Greenwood.Google Scholar

Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. (2005). Caring for children around the world: A view from HOME. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 468–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. (1994). Nature–nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P. K., & Duncan, G. J. (1996). Ethnic differences in children's intelligence test scores: Role of economic deprivation, home environment, and maternal characteristics. Child Development, 67, 396–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Button, T. M. M., Scourfield, J., Martin, N., Purcell, S., & McGuffin, P. (2005). Family dysfunction interacts with genes in the causation of antisocial symptoms. Behavior Genetics, 35, 115–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. Little Rock: University of Arkansas Press.Google Scholar

Coldwell, J., Pike, A., & Dunn, J. (2006). Household chaos—Links with parenting and child behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1116–1122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cronk, N. J., Slutske, W. S., Madden, P. A. F., Bucholz, K. K., Reich, W., & Heath, A. C. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems among female twins: An evaluation of the equal environments assumption. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 829–837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Deater-Deckard, K., & O'Connor, T. G. (2000). Parent–child mutuality in early childhood: Two behavioral genetic studies. Developmental Psychology, 36, 561–570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Deater-Deckard, K., & Petrill, S. A. (2004). Parent–child dyadic mutuality and child behavior problems: An investigation of gene–environment processes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1171–1179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

D'Onofrio, B. M., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., Slutske, W. S., & Martin, N. G. (2005). A genetically informed study of marital instability and its association with offspring psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 570–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dumas, J., Nissley, J., Nordstrom, A., Smith, E., Prinz, R., & Levine, D. (2005). Home chaos: Sociodemographic, parenting, interactional, and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 93–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Spinrad, T. L., Liew, J., Zhou, Q., Losoya, S. H., et al. (2009). Longitudinal relations of children's effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 45, 988–1008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Developmental Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Evans, G., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L., Gentile, L., & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotinoal adjustment. Psychological Science, 16, 560–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Evans, G., Wells, N., & Moch, A. (2003). Housing and mental health: A review of the evidence and a methodological and conceptual critique. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 475–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Forget-Dubois, N., Pérusse, D., Turecki, G., Girard, A., Billette, J.-M., Rouleau, G., et al. (2003). Diagnosing zygosity in infant twins: Physical similarity, genotyping, and chorionicity. Twin Research, 6, 479–485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gagne, J. R., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2011). A longitudinal analysis of anger and inhibitory control in twins from 12 to 36 months of age. Developmental Science, 14, 112–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gagne, J. R., Van Hulle, C. A., Aksan, N., Essex, M. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2011). Deriving childhood temperament measures from emotion-eliciting behavioral episodes: Scale construction and initial validation. Psychological Assessment, 23, 337–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gjone, H., & Stevenson, J. (1997). A longitudinal twin study of temperament and behavior problems: Common genetic or environmental influences? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1448–1456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goldsmith, H. H. (1988). Human developmental behavioral genetics: Mapping the effects of genes and environments. Annals of Child Development, 5, 187–227.Google Scholar

Goldsmith, H. H. (1991). A zygosity questionnaire for young twins: A research note. Behavior Genetics, 21, 257–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, K. A., & Lemery, K. S. (1997). Toddler and childhood temperament: Expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of environment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 891–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goldsmith, H. H., Lemery, K. S., Buss, K. A., & Campos, J. J. (1999). Genetic analyses of focal aspects of infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 35, 972–985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goldsmith, H. H., Reilly, J., Lemery, K. S., Longley, S., & Prescott, A. (1993). Preliminary manual for the Preschool Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Technical Report Version 1.0). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Psychology.Google Scholar

Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar

Hur, Y. (2009). Genetic and environmental contributions to childhood temperament in South Korean Twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12, 549–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Taylor, A. (2004). Physical maltreatment victim to antisocial child: Evidence of an environmentally mediated process. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 44–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Johnson, W. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on behavior: Capturing all the interplay. Psychological Review, 114, 423–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kendler, K. S., & Baker, J. H. (2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 37, 615–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kendler, K. S., & Karkowski-Shuman, L. (1997). Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: Genetic control of exposure to the environment. Psychological Medicine, 27, 539–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Prescott, C. A., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., Corey, L. A., et al. (1996). Childhood parental loss and alcoholism in women: A causal analysis using a twin-family design. Psychological Medicine, 26, 79–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M., & Pederson, N. L. (2000). Tobacco consumption in Swedish twins reared apart and reared together. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 886–892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Krueger, R., South, S., Johnson, W., & Iacono, W. (2008). The heritability of personality is not always 50%: Gene–environment interactions and correlations between personality and parenting. Journal of Personality, 76, 1485–1521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lemery-Chalfant, K. (2010). How genes and environments work together to promote resilience. In Reich, J., Zautra, A. J., & Hall, J. S. (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Lemery-Chalfant, K., Clifford, S., & Swann, G. (in press). Temperament and child psychopathology: Specificity in shared genetic effects. In Kim, Y. (Series Ed.) & Saudino, K. & Ganiban, J. (Vol. Eds.). Behavior genetics book series: Behavior genetics of temperament and personality. New York: Springer.Google Scholar

Lemery-Chalfant, K., Doelger, L., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2008). Genetic relations between effortful and attentional control and symptoms of psychopathology in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 17, 365–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lemery-Chalfant, K., Goldsmith, H. H., Schmidt, N. L., Arneson, C. L., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Wisconsin Twin Project: Current directions and findings. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9, 1030–1037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lichtenstein, P., & Pedersen, N. L. (1997). Does genetic variance for cognitive abilities account for genetic variance in educational achievement and occupational status? A study of twins reared apart and twins reared together. Biodemography and Social Biology, 44, 77–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Liddell, C., & Kruger, P. (1989). Activity and social behaviour in a crowded South African township nursery—A follow-up study on the effects of crowding at home. Merrill–Parmer Quarterly, 35, 209–226.Google Scholar

Lytton, H., & Gallagher, L. (2002). Parenting twins and the genetics of parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1. Children and parenting (2nd ed., pp. 227–253). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Matheny, A., & Phillips, K. (2001). Temperament and context: Correlates of home environment with temperament continuity and change, newborn to 30 months. In Wachs, T. D. & Kohnstamm, G. A. (Eds.), Temperament in context (pp. 81–101). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Matheny, A., Wachs, T., Ludwig, J., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bring order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the confusion, hubbub, and order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16, 429–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Matheny, A., Wilson, R., & Thoben, A. (1987). Home and mother: Relations with infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 23, 323–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McCall, R. (1991). So many interactions, so little evidence: Why? In Wachs, T. & Plomin, R. (Eds.), Conceptualization and measurement of organism environment interaction (pp. 142–161). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McGue, M., & Bouchard, T. J. (1984). Adjustment of twin data for the effects of age and sex. Behavior Genetics, 14, 325–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moberg, T., Lichtenstein, P., Forsman, M., & Larsson, H. (2011). Internalizing behavior in adolescent girls affects parental emotional overinvolvement: A cross-lagged twin study. Behavior Genetics, 41, 223–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2006). Measured gene–environment interactions in psychopathology: Concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 5–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moilanen, I., Linna, S. L., Ebeling, H., Kumpulainen, K., Tamminen, T., Piha, J., et al. (1999). Are twins' behavioral/emotional problems different from singletons'? European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, IV/62–IV/67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mullineaux, P., Deater-Deckard, K., Petrill, S., Thompson, L., & DeThorne, L. (2009). Temperament in middle childhood: A behavioral genetic analysis of fathers' and mothers' reports. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 737–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Murray, R. (1974). The influence of crowding on children's behavior. In Canter, D. & Lee, T. (Eds.), Psychology and the built environment (pp. 112–117). London: Wiley.Google Scholar

Neale, M. C., Boker, S. M., Xie, G., & Maes, H. H. (2003). Mx: Statistical modeling (6th ed.). Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar

Neale, M. C., & Cardon, L. R. (1992). Methodology for genetic studies of twins and families. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Novak, G., & Pelaez, M. (2003). Child and adolescent development: A behavioral systems approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Pettit, G., Bates, J., & Dodge, K. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context, and children's adjustment: A seven-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 68, 908–923.Google Scholar

Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2001). Behavioral genetics. New York: Worth.Google ScholarPubMed

Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46, 379–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Prevatt, F. (2003). The contribution of parenting practices in a risk and resiliency model of children's adjustment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 469–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Price, T. S., Freeman, B., Craig, I. W., Petrill, S. A., Ebersole, L., & Plomin, R. (2000). Infant zygosity can be assigned by parental report questionnaire data. Twin Research, 3, 129–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Price, T., & Jaffee, S. (2008). Effects of the family environment: Gene–environment interaction and passive gene–environment correlation. Developmental Psychology, 44, 305–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Purcell, S. (2002). Variance components models for gene–environment interaction in twin analysis. Twin Research, 5, 554–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rathouz, P., Van Hulle, C., Rodgers, J., Waldman, I., & Lahey, B. (2008). Specification, testing, and interpretation of gene-by-measured-environment interaction models in the presence of gene–environment correlation. Behavior Genetics, 38, 301–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2007). Genetic expression outside the skin: Clues to mechanisms of genotype × environment interaction. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1005–1027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2000). The interplay of genetic influences and social processes in developmental theory: Specific mechanisms are coming into view. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 357–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rhee, S. H., Cosgrove, V. E., Schmitz, S., Haberstick, B. C., Corley, R. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2007). Early childhood temperament and the covariation between internalizing and externalizing behavior in school-aged children. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Riggins-Caspers, K. M., Cadoret, R. J., Knutson, J. F., & Langbehn, D. (2003). Biology–environment interaction and evocative biology–environment correlation: Contributions of harsh discipline and parental psychopathology to problem adolescent behaviors. Behavior Genetics, 33, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at 3–7 years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed., pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar

Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar

Rowe, David (1994). The limits of family influence. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Rubin, K., Coplan, R., & Bowker, J. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rutter, M. (2006). Genes and behavior: Nature–nurture interplay explained. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar

Rutter, M., Moffitt, T., & Caspi, A. (2006). Gene–environment interplay and psychopathology: Multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Saudino, K. (2005). Behavior genetics and child temperament. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 214–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Saudino, K. J., & Cherny, S. S. (2001). Parent ratings of temperament in twins. In Emde, R. N. & Hewitt, J. K. (Eds.), The transition from infancy to early childhood: Genetic and environmental influences in the MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study (pp. 73–88). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Saudino, K. J., Pedersen, N. L., Lichtenstein, P., McClearn, G. E., & Plomin, R. (1997). Can personality explain genetic influences on life events? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 196–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Saudino, K. J., & Plomin, R. (1997). Cognitive and temperamental mediators of genetic contributions to the home environment during infancy. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 43, 1–23.Google Scholar

Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990s: Development and individual differences. Child Development, 63, 1–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schmitz, S., & Saudino, K. J. (2003). Links between temperament and behavior problems in early adolescence. In Petrill, S. A., Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (Eds.), Nature, nurture, and the transition to early adolescence (pp. 185–198). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schmitz, S., Saudino, K. J., Plomin, R., Fulker, D. W., & DeFries, J. C. (1996). Genetic and environmental influences on temperament in middle childhood: Analyses of teacher and tester ratings. Child Development, 67, 409–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schwartz, C., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1996). Early childhood temperament as determinant of externalizing behavior in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 527–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Shanahan, M. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2005). Social context in gene–environment interactions: Retrospect and prospect. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, 65–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Silventoinen, K., Kaprio, J., Lahelma, E., & Koskenvuo, M. (2000). Relative effect of genetic and environmental factors on body height: Differences across birth cohorts among Finnish men and women. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 627–630.Google ScholarPubMed

Singh, A., & Waldman, I. (2010). The etiology of associations between negative emotionality and childhood externalizing disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 376–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Slutske, W. C., Heath, A. C., Dinwiddie, S. H., Madden, P. A. R., Bucholz, K. K., Dunne, M. P., et al. (1997). Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: A study of 2,682 adult twin pairs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 266–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

South, S. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2011). Socioeconomic status and health problems moderate genetic and environmental influences on internalizing pathology. Psychological Medicine, 41, 107–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Supplee, L., Unikel, E., & Shaw, D. (2007). Physical environmental adversity and the protective role of maternal monitoring in relation to early child conduct problems. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 166–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Thapar, A., Harold, G., & McGuffin, P. (1998). Life events and depressive symptoms in childhood—Shared genes or shared adversity: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 1153–1158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Turkheimer, E. (2000). Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 160–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Valiente, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Reiser, M. (2007). Pathways to problem behaviors: Chaotic homes, parent and child effortful control, and parenting. Social Development, 16, 249–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wachs, T. D. (1988). Relevance of physical environment influences for toddler temperament. Infant Behavior and Development, 11, 431–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wachs, T. D. (2000). Necessary but not sufficient: The respective roles of single and multiple influences on individual development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wachs, T. D. (2010). Viewing microsystem chaos through a Bronfenbrenner bioecological lens. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Waldman, I. D. (2007). Gene–environment interactions reexamined: Does mother's marital stability interact with the dopamine receptor D2 gene in the etiology of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1117–1128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wichers, M., Purcell, S., Danckaerts, M., Derom, C., Derom, R., Vlietinck, R., et al. (2002). Prenatal life and postnatal psychopathology: Evidence for negative gene–birth weight interaction. Psychological Medicine, 32, 1165–1174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008). Disorders of childhood and adolescence: Gender and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 275–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

What is an example of a passive gene

What is passive gene

What is one example of a gene by environment interaction?

What are passive genes?