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This is an ability that develops throughout life, allowing students of all ages to learn from experience, but it first is evident and measured during early childhood ^Usually these three components comprise executive function: working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control—which is the ability to focus on a task and ignore distractions. ex./one test of executive function during the preschool years is to ask a child to say "night" when seeing a picture of the sun and to say "day" when seeing a picture of the moon. Children who are able to do this are flexible, able to stop their initial impulse. During the preschool years, various programs inspired by Vygotsky (e.g., Tools of the Mind) promote executive function The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories. -According to theory-theory, the best explanation for cognition is that humans seek reasons, causes, and underlying principles to make sense of their experience. ex./ One common theory-theory is that everyone intends to do things correctly. For that reason, when asked to repeat something ungrammatical that an adult says, children often correct the grammar. A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization seldom occurs before age 4. AKA Folk psychology -Mental processes—thoughts, emotions, beliefs, motives, and intentions—are among the most complicated and puzzling phenomena that humans encounter every day. -Some aspects include develop sooner, and some later. Longitudinal research finds that the preschool years typically begin with 2-year-olds not knowing that other people think differently than they do but end with 6-year-olds having a well developed theory of mind ex./ Part of theory of mind is understanding that someone else might have a mistaken belief. For example, a child watches a puppet named Max put a toy dog into a red box. Then Max leaves and the child sees the dog taken out of the red box and put in a blue box. -Theory of mind actually develops gradually, progressing from knowing that someone else might have different desires (at about age 3) to knowing that someone might hide their true feelings (about age 6). -culture matters. Even within one nation, regional differences appear, not in the universal progression but in specific examples (Duh et al., 2016). The most notable variations, however, are neurological, not cultural: Children who are deaf or have autism are remarkably slow to develop theory of mind 1. In one experiment, 247 children, aged 3 to 5, were left alone at a table that had an upside-down cup covering dozens of candies ( Evans et al., 2011). The children were told not to peek, and the experimenter left the room. For 142 children (57 percent), curiosity overcame obedience. They peeked, spilling so many candies onto the table that they could not put them back under the cup. The examiner returned, asking how the candies got on the table. Only one-fourth of the participants (more often the younger ones) told the truth. The rest lied, and their skill increased with their age. The 3-year-olds typically told hopeless lies (e.g., "The candies got out by themselves"); the 4-year-olds told unlikely lies (e.g., "Other children came in and knocked over the cup"). Some of the 5-year-olds, however, told plausible lies (e.g., "My elbow knocked over the cup accidentally"). 2. This particular study was done in Beijing, China, but the results seem universal: Older children are better liars (see Figure 9.2). -Beyond the age differences, the experimenters found that the more logical liars were also more advanced in theory of mind and executive functioning ^ That finding occurs in many studies: Both theory of mind and executive function advance as memory improves, experience builds, and the prefrontal cortex matures -Children who are slow in language development are also slow in theory of mind, a finding that makes developmentalists suggest that underlying deficits—genetic or neurological—may be crucial for both. -Developmentalists suggest that, in addition to specific efforts to improve language skills, therapists need to consider ways to advance executive function -Social interactions with other children advance theory of mind and executive function. This is especially evident when the other children are siblings of about the same age -Indeed, many studies have found that a child's
ability to develop theories correlates with neurological maturation, which also correlates with advances in executive processing—the reflective, anticipatory capacity of the mind - Nurture is always important. The reason that formal education traditionally began at about age 6 is that at that point maturation of the prefrontal cortex naturally allows sustained attention, but many experiences before age 6 can advance brain development and thus ready a child for learning Brain maturation, myelination, scaffolding, and social interaction make early childhood ideal for learning language. -scientists once thought that early childhood was a critical period for language learning—the only time when a first language could be mastered and the best time to learn a second or third one. -Instead, early childhood is a sensitive period for language learning—for rapidly and easily mastering vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Young children are language sponges; they soak up every verbal drop they encounter ^One of the valuable (and sometimes frustrating) traits of young children is that they talk about many things to adults, to each other, to themselves, to their toys—unfazed by misuse, mispronunciation, ignorance, stuttering, and so on >Language comes easily partly because preoperational children are not self-critical about what they say. Egocentrism has advantages; this is one of them. Approximate Age Characteristic or Achievement in First Language A. 2 years B. 3 years C. 4 years D. 6 years and up
The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning. ex./ Picture books offer many opportunities to advance vocabulary through scaffolding and fast-mapping. -This process explains children's learning of colors. Generally, 2-year-olds fast-map color names ex./ For instance, "blue" is used for some greens or grays. It is not that children cannot see the hues. ^Instead, they apply words they know to broad categories and have not yet learned the boundaries that adults use, or specifics such as chartreuse, turquoise, olive, navy. -As one team of scientists explains, adults' color words are the result of slow-mapping (K. Wagner et al., 2013), which is not what young children do. The practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context. -knowing which words, tones, and grammatical forms to use with whom -In some languages, it is essential to know which set of words to use when a person is older, or when someone is not a close friend, or when grandparents are on the mother's side or the father's. -English does not make those distinctions, but pragmatics is important for early-childhood learning nonetheless. -The pragmatics of polite speech require more social understanding than many young children possess Because understanding the printed word is crucial, a meta-analysis of about 300 studies analyzed which activities in early childhood aided reading later on. Five specific strategies and experiences were particularly effective for children of all income levels, languages, and ethnicities. 1. Code-focused teaching. In order for children to read, they must "break the code" from spoken to written words. It helps if they learn the letters and sounds of the alphabet (e.g., "A, alligators all around" or, conventionally, "B is for baby"). 2. Book-reading. Vocabulary as well as familiarity with pages and print will increase when adults read to children, allowing questions and conversation. 3. Parent education. When parents know how to stimulate cognition (as in book-reading), children become better readers. Adults need to use words to expand vocabulary. 4. Language enhancement. Within each child's zone of proximal development, mentors can expand vocabulary and grammar, based on the child's knowledge and experience. 5. Preschool programs. Children learn from teachers, songs, excursions, and other children. (We discuss variations of early education next, but every study finds that preschools advance language acquisition.) -Young children learn in a variety of settings, and a close relationship to their mothers is maintained whether or not they are in day care full-time. However, developmental theories and understanding of children can inspire educators, suggest hypotheses, and advance ideas. Home: If the home learning environment is poor, a good preschool program aids health, cognition, and social skills. If, instead, a family provides excellent learning, children still benefit from attending a high-quality preschool, but they do not benefit as much as less fortunate children. Schools: Educational institutions for 3- to 5-year-olds are called preschools, nursery schools, day-care centers, pre-primary programs, pre-K classes, and kindergartens. -However, one aspect—child-teacher interaction—does correlate with more learning. A bad sign is a teacher who sits and watches; look for teachers who talk, laugh, guide, and play with the children. Goal:One broad distinction concerns the program goals. Is the goal to encourage each child's creative individuality (child-centered) or to prepare the child for formal education (teacher-directed), or is it to prepare low-SES children for school (intervention, such as Head Start)? Many programs are called child-centered, or developmental, because they stress each child's development and growth. Teachers in such programs believe children need to follow their own interests rather than adult directions. -Most child-centered programs encourage artistic expression. Some educators argue that young children are gifted
in seeing the world more imaginatively than older people do. -Child-centered programs are often influenced by Piaget, who emphasized that each child will discover new ideas if given a chance, or by Vygotsky, who thought that children learn from playing, especially with other children, with adult guidance. A program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, and that encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting. -. In Reggio Emilia, children are encouraged to master skills that are not usually taught in North American schools until age 7 or so, such as writing and using tools. ^Reggio schools do not provide large-group instruction, with lessons in, say, forming letters or cutting paper. Instead, hands-on activities chosen by individual children, such as drawing, cooking, and gardening, are stressed. -Each child's learning is documented via scrapbooks, photos, and daily notes—not to measure progress but to help the child and the parent take pride in accomplishments -Often those group projects include exploring some aspect of the natural world. One analysis of Reggio Emilia in the United States found "a science-rich context that triggered and supported preschoolers' inquiries and effectively engaged preschoolers' hands, heads, and hearts with science" Teacher-directed preschools stress academics, often taught by one adult to the entire group. -The goal of teacher-directed programs is to make all children "ready to learn" when they enter elementary school. For that reason, basic skills are stressed, including precursors to reading, writing, and arithmetic, perhaps through teachers asking questions that children answer together in unison. -The curriculum includes learning the names of letters, numbers, shapes, and colors according to a set timetable; every child naps, snacks, and goes to the bathroom on schedule as well. >Children practice forming letters, sounding out words, counting objects, and writing their names. If a 4-year-old learns to read, that is success. (In a child-centered program, that might arouse suspicion that there was too little time to play or socialize.) -Many teacher-directed programs were inspired by behaviorism, which emphasizes step-by-step learning
and repetition, with reinforcement (praise, gold stars, prizes) for accomplishment. A federally funded early-childhood intervention program for low-income children of preschool age. -The goals for Head Start have changed
over the decades, from lifting families out of poverty to promoting literacy, from providing dental care and immunizations to teaching Standard English, from focusing on 4-year-olds to including 2- and 3-year-olds. -A 2007 congressional reauthorization of funding for Head Start included a requirement for extensive
evaluation -Head start advances students in many ways including: -but, compared to similar children who had only their mother's care, they had more behavior problems, according to their teachers Specifics are debatable, but empirical evidence and longitudinal evaluation find that preschool education advances learning. Ideally, each program has a curriculum that guides practice, all the adults collaborate, and experienced teachers respond to each child. - Early education has substantial long-term benefits that become most apparent when children are in
the third grade or later. -In adolescence, the children who had undergone intensive preschool education had
higher aspirations, possessed a greater sense of achievement, and were less likely to have been abused. -This combined child-centered and teacher-directed programs, with all the teachers working together on the same goals, so children were not confused. The parents reinforced what the children learned. In all three, teachers deliberately involved parents, and each program included strategies to enhance the home-school connection. ^These programs are expensive, ranging from $6-8 thousand a year; however, the decreased need for special education and other social services later on made early education a "wise investment". Additional benefits to society over the child's lifetime, including increased employment and tax revenues, as well as reduced crime, are worth much more than the cost of the programs. -Most state programs pay only for children living in poverty, but some wealthy families pay tuition for preschool education. Which description is characteristic of preoperational thought in toddlers?Piaget proposed that cognitive development progressed in stages and categorized these stages by children's ages. Between the ages of 2 and 7, preoperational children are described as being egocentric. They are controlled by their own perceptions, thoughts, and ideas, and cannot consider the viewpoint of others.
What are some characteristics of preoperational thought in toddlers quizlet?- Characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred. Principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) when its appearance changes.
Which of the following is a characteristic of preoperational thought quizlet?According to Piaget, which of the following is a characteristic of the preoperational stage? Children begin to think symbolically but engage in intuitive thought.
Which are characteristics of a child who uses preoperational thinking?Some examples a child is at the preoperational stage include: imitating the way someone talks or moves even when they are not in the room. drawing people and objects from their own life but understanding they are only representations. pretending a stick is a sword or that a broom is a horse during play.
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Which description is characteristic of preoperational thought in toddlers quizlet?
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