The rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of a reinforcer are called

relatively durable change in behaviour/knowledge due to experience - one of the most fundamental aspects of psychology - includes the acquisition of knowledge/skills - shapes our personal habits/preferences, personality traits,emotional responses and most of our behaviour

irrational fears of specific objects or situations

initial stage of learning something

the gradual weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

organisms responding to stimuli other than the original stimuli used

organisms responding to similar stimuli to the original stimulus used in conditioning

learning associations between events that occur in an organisms environment

- classical conditioning - operant conditioning - observational conditioning

Classical conditioning is...

a type of learning in which an stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
- stimulus precedes the response

-established by Ivan Pavlov (1900) - used dogs in his experiment - tone = CS or neural stimulus which is given at the presence of meat powder (UCS or stimulus) to detect salivation - dogs eventually salivated in the presence of the tone alone - demonstrated that learned associations - building blocks of learning process - were formed by events in an organism's environment

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) 

a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned reaction to a unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning 

Conditioned stimulus (CS) 

previously neural stimulus that has through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) 

a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning 

Physic Reflex or Conditioned Reflex

most reflexes are automatic or involuntary

consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli - psychologists are concerned for how many trials are required to establish a particular conditioned bond

- conditioned fears can be traced back to experiences that involve classical conditioning - pleasant --> smell associations

- immune system --> lead to immunosuppression (decrease in the production of anti-bodies) - allergic reactions - drug tolerance --> CCR is strengthened - sexual arousal

Acquisition of Classical Conditioning

- depends on the stimulus contiguity (they're contiguous if they occur together in the same time/space) * alone doesn't automatically produce conditioning* - stimuli that are novel, unusual or intense have more potential to become CS's because they stand out - * CS + UCR = CR *

Extinction of classical conditioning

consistent presentation alone without the unconditioned stimulus 

reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposer to the CS 

extinction doesn't always lead to unlearning

stimulus generalization of Classical conditioning

-adaptive - the more similar NEW stimuli are to the ORIGINAL stimuli, the greater the generalization - quantified by graphs called generalization gradients - CR elicited by new stimulus that resembles original CS

Stimulus Discrimination of Classical Conditioning

- original CS continue to be paired with the UCS while similar stimuli not be paired with the UCS 

Higher-order conditioning 

a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus - classical conditioning doesn't depend on the presence of genuine, natural UCS - built on the foundation of established conditioned responses

Operant conditioning is...

a type of learning in which the responses come to be controlled by other consequences - stimulus events that follow the response = the consequences - B. F. Skinner: learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by the outcomes that follow them

if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened - Edward Thorndike - Operant conditioning is also referred to as instrumental learning

- mechanical process in which successful responses are gradually "stamped in" by their favourable effects

- occurs when an event following a response increases an organisms tendency to make that response - response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding consequences - B. F. Skinner - everyday behaviour is regulated by reinforcement

operant chamber/skinner's box

small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response thats recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled - permits the experimenter to control the reinforcement contingencies

reinforcement contingencies

circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers - key dependent variable in` most operant conditioning research is the response rate

creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a skinner's box as a function of time - pen moves according to pattern --> response = upward movement

-established through shaping - consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response --> used for animal training - shaping is necessary when an organism doesn't, on its own, emit the desired response - responding gradually increases because of reinforcement, possibly through shaping

extinction of oc: - Resistance to extinciton

- occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated - the greater the Resistance to the extinction the longer the responding will continue - people want to strengthen a response in a way that it will be relatively resistant to extinction

stimulus generalization of oc: - Discriminative stimuli

cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or non-reinforcement) of a response - key role in regulation of operant behaviour - responding to a new stimulus as if it were original

stimulus discrimination of oc:

responding doesn't increase in the lack of presence of new stimuli that resembles the original discrimination stimulus 

events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs 

secondary reinforcers: conditioned

events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers - money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise and applause

schedule of reinforcement: 

determines which occurrences of a specific response results in the presentation of a reinforcer

occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced

intermittent reinforcement
- partial

occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time - makes a response more resistant to extinction than continuous

4 types of intermittent schedules: 

RATIO SCHEDULES: 1. Fixed- Ratio 2. Variable- Ratio
INTERVAL SCHEDULES: 3. Fixed- Interval 4. Variable- Interval

require that the organism makes the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer (more rapid) 

reinforcer is giver after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses - e.g. rat is reinforced after every 10th lever push

reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses - e.g. a rat is reinforced every 10th lever push on the avg.

require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers 

reinforcer is given for the 1st response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

reinforcer is given for the st response after a variable time interval has elapsed

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus 

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus - e.g. rush home to get out of the cold

negative reinforcement: - escape learning

organisms acquires the response/behaviour that decreases/ends some aversive stimulation

Negative reinforcement: - Avoidance learning

an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring 

asserting that the avoidance response removes an internal aversive stimulation from occurring 

occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response

presents aversive stimulus - e.g. spanking a child

removes awarding stimulus - e.g. taking away toy - weakens response - used for disciplinary purposes

observational learning is...

occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called "models" - conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing another conditioning - Albert Bandura: reinforcement influences which of several already acquired responses one will form more than it influences the acquisition of new responses         Response --> Rewarding stimulus present

4 key processes of observational learning

1. Attention - must pay attention to others behaviour and consequences 2. Retention (memory) 3. Reproduction - conversion: stored mental images --> overt behaviour 4. Motivation - depends on whether you encounter a situation that you believe the response will pay off

acquisition of observational learning 

- reinforcement affects which responses are actually performed more than which responses are acquired 

What are the 2 major changes in thinking about conditioning?

1. biological heritage 2. cognitive processes

- poses limitations - CS + UCS = UCR - natural selection - evolution may have biologically programmed organisms to learn certain types of associations more than others - mechanism have been modified in the course of evolution as species have adapted to the demands of their enviro

biological heritage: instinctive drift

occurs when an animals instinctive response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes 

biological heritage: preparedness

involves a species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ays and not others 

- signal relations CS - UCS --> CS is good (allows accurate prediction of the UCS) - manipulates the predictive value of a conditioned stimulus - response is more likely strengthened if the person thinks that the responses caused the outcomes

cognitive processes: contingencies

organisms try to figure out what leads to what in the world around them 

What is the term for the rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of a reinforcer?

When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation?

When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal?

When a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus it is called?