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journal article Moderator Variables in Leadership ResearchThe Academy of Management Review Vol. 11, No. 1 (Jan., 1986) , pp. 88-102 (15 pages) Published By: Academy of Management https://doi.org/10.2307/258333 https://www.jstor.org/stable/258333 Read and download Log in through your school or library Alternate access options For independent researchers Read Online Read 100 articles/month free Subscribe to JPASS Unlimited reading + 10 downloads Purchase article $29.00 - Download now and later Abstract Much recent research on leadership has concerned moderator (contingency) variables. This research has yielded equivocal and/or conflicting results. Conceptually distinct variables have been treated as if they operate in the same fashion. This paper suggests a typology of moderators based on the mechanisms by which moderators operate. Moderators are classified as neutralizers/enhancers, substitutes/supplements, or mediators depending on how they affect leader behavior-criterion relationships. The typology is applied to several contingency theories of leadership and implications for future leadership research and practice are discussed. Journal Information The Academy of Management Review, now in its 26th year, is the most cited of management references. AMR ranks as one of the most influential business journals, publishing academically rigorous, conceptual papers that advance the science and practice of management. AMR is a theory development journal for management and organization scholars around the world. AMR publishes novel, insightful and carefully crafted conceptual articles that challenge conventional wisdom concerning all aspects of organizations and their role in society. The journal is open to a variety of perspectives, including those that seek to improve the effectiveness of, as well as those critical of, management and organizations. Each manuscript published in AMR must provide new theoretical insights that can advance our understanding of management and organizations. Most articles include a review of relevant literature as well. AMR is published four times a year with a circulation of 15,000. Publisher Information The Academy of Management (the Academy; AOM) is a leading professional association for scholars dedicated to creating and disseminating knowledge about management and organizations. The Academy's central mission is to enhance the profession of management by advancing the scholarship of management and enriching the professional development of its members. The Academy is also committed to shaping the future of management research and education. Founded in 1936, the Academy of Management is the oldest and largest scholarly management association in the world. Today, the Academy is the professional home for more than 18290 members from 103 nations. Membership in the Academy is open to all individuals who find value in belonging. Rights & Usage This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Managers and leaders differ in Which of the following is an example of an individual who is leading? A friend convincing you to go on a date Which of the following is NOT a type of power? Shavonda has made important, meaningful changes in her company’s operation. She has Which of the following is a kind of power? The form of power a person has because of the position he or she occupies in an organization is known as _____ power. Kenneth is vice president of marketing. He assigns a task to a subordinate, but the subordinate disregards it. Kenneth has _____ . If a manager gives a subordinate a job to do and the subordinate does it because it is within the normal boundaries of his job, the manager has used _____ power is created and conveyed in the organization by granting authority. A news producer selects a reporter to cover a typical story. The producer has _____ power. The ability to control salary increases, promotions, praise, and interesting job assignments is known as What type of power do leaders have if they are able to offer or withhold inducements? A news producer selects a reporter to cover a breaking story that will get attention and possibly lead to career advancement. The producer has _____ power. Military leaders have no control over pay or bonuses. They rely on praise, public recognition, and evaluations for ______ power. Punishment and avoidance procedures involve the use of _____ power.
A supervisor’s use of coercion also involves the Workplace bullies use sarcasm, humiliation, and fear to influence others. This is a form of _____ power. Jason uses reprimands, fines, and demotion. These are forms of _____ power. Charismatic leadership is closely linked with The power that generally sets leaders apart from nonleaders is _____ power. Arnold has a great sense of humor. He is never mean with it. He says things in such a unique way that people love being around him. He has ______ power. _____ power is based on knowledge and expertise Andrea has a Ph.D. in organizational psychology and 15 years of consulting experience. Her primary power is Jack has an electrical engineering degree and has worked with automated control systems for over ten years. His coworkers who design heating and cooling systems are typically influenced by any design suggestions that he makes. Jack has _____ power. Good administrative assistants have more access to important information and the decision maker than subordinates have. The administrative assistants have _____ power. Personal and inspirational appeals are most closely related to _____ power. Marcus dresses like his supervisor, uses the same expressions, and has taken up golf, his boss’s favorite sport. Marcus’s supervisor has _______ power. The reinforcement theory of motivation is the basis for using Which of the following is a way that managers can use power? Melissa was promoted to manager based on her display of great self-confidence and her intelligence. The assumptions under which Melissa received her promotion are based on the usefulness of _____ in predicting who will make a good leader. Which of the following represents how leadership was studied during the first several decades of the twentieth century? What approach to identifying a leader are you using if you vote for a politician based on his or her communication skills, intelligence, education, and assertiveness?
Which of the following BEST represents the outcome of the work done to determine what personal traits can be used to predict leader effectiveness? A very long list of traits and the presence of alternative explanations for results made the studies of little value. Which of the following is a leader-behavior model? In the Marine Corps, subordinates want tough effective training that they know will some day save their lives. If you apply the Michigan studies in this case, the subordinates want Working Mother magazine ranked Abbott as one of the top ten companies for working families. CEO Miles White says “One of the most important things we can do for working families today is to help them lead healthier lives.” According to the Michigan studies, White is using _____behavior. The Michigan studies concluded that the best leader is According to the Michigan studies, managers may be job-centered or employee-centered, but not both simultaneously What is the major difference between the Ohio State studies and the Michigan studies of leadership? One says that you can be high on both groups of leader behaviors simultaneously; the other says you cannot. In the Marine Corps, subordinates want tough effective training that they know will some day save their lives. If you apply the Ohio studies, subordinates want initiating structure behavior Working Mother magazine ranked Abbott as one of the top ten companies for working families. CEO Miles White says “One of the most important things we can do for working families today is to help them lead healthier lives.” According to the Ohio studies, White is using _____ behavior. In the Marine Corps, subordinates want tough effective training that they know will some day save their lives. Marines also want to be well taken care of by a supportive leader. Marines’ desires for tough training and supportive leaders support the _____ model of leadership behavior. What term was used by researchers at Ohio State to describe the leadership behavior that is most similar to employee-centered behavior? is useful for describing leader behavior but not useful for predicting it. The leadership model that laid the foundation for much of the later work on situational approaches to leadership proposed a continuum of leader behaviors, with each point on the continuum being influenced by various factors. What is the basic assumption of situational approaches to leadership? The appropriate leader style will vary from one set of circumstances to another. Which of the following leadership models is a combination of the trait and leader behavior approaches, with the addition of a situational element? Critics of the LPC model contend that What score does Fiedler use to determine leader style? The underlying assumption of situational models of leadership is that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another. Which of the following is an example of one situation identified by Fiedler? Lew has been appointed leader of a project task force. He has legitimate power in this position. The task is structured. Also, Daniel has strong leader-member relations. According to Fiedler’s LPC theory, the favorableness of the situation is Daniel has been appointed leader of a project task force. He has legitimate power in this position. The task is unstructured. Also, Daniel has weak leader-member relations. According to Fiedler’s LPC theory, what type of leadership style is appropriate in this situation? According to Fiedler’s research, what is the most effective form of leader behavior when situational favorableness is either most favorable or least favorable? Working Mother magazine ranked Discovery Communications as one of the top ten companies for working families. CEO David Zaslav says “Addressing the needs of working families…means placing priority on flexibility to enable a healthy work/life balance, access to high quality health care and wellness programs.” Fiedler would describe this leadership situation as having good leader-member relations Working Mother magazine ranked Bon Secours Richmond Health System as one of the top ten companies for working families. CEO Peter Bernard says “We expect our managers to support flexible schedules, promote education, push job development and encourage a healthy work/life balance. According to Fiedler’s research, what is the most effective form of leader behavior for Bernard to adopt? When there is a mismatch between leader style and the type of situation in which leaders find themselves, what does Fiedler suggest should be done? leadership style is fixed According to Fiedler’s research on his contingency theory of leadership, relationship-oriented leaders get the best results when situational favorableness is moderate Which of the following is NOT one of the criticisms of Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership? It is unrealistic to combine the behavior and trait approaches in one theory. The leadership styles of the path-goal theory include _____ styles. participative, directive, achievement-oriented, and supportive Which of the following leadership theories is a direct extension of the expectancy theory of motivation? Pete tells his staff what to do, but not how to do it. When they come to him for help, he assists them and treats them as equals. Based on the path-goal theory, what kind of leader behavior is Pete exhibiting? Mickey lets his people know what he expects of them, schedules work for his section, and gives his people guidance and direction. Based on the path-goal theory, what kind of leader behavior is Mickey exhibiting? According to path-goal theory, a leader cannot change the personality of a subordinate, so the primary function of the leader is to make organizational rewards available and show employees what behavior will be effective in getting those rewards. You supervise a group of very competent employees who have been at their present jobs an average of seven years. Which two theories would say that you have little need to use a directive style of leadership and that subordinates may even resent it if you do? Path-goal and substitutes for leadership Which of the following is NOT one of the situational factors thought to modify the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate motivation to perform in the path-goal theory? Preferences of the leader What leadership style would a person with an external locus of control be most likely to DISLIKE? One of the problems with many family-owned businesses is that the father or mother who started the business uses a(n) _____ leader behavior. Sons and daughters who are brought into the business are still treated as children rather than as equals. The members of the newer generation are told what to do, how to do it, and when it should be done. Chris Childers opened Macon Christian Bookstore in the 1980s. He quickly found that he needed help running the operation, so he hired his parents, his brother, and his girlfriend. Childers was pleased when his mother suggested having a section of the store devoted to decorative items. He encouraged his brother’s idea about selling choir robes. He treats his employees like equals, asks their advice, and often implements their suggestions. According to the path-goal theory, Childers is a(n) _____ leader. Which of the following is a situational leadership model? _____ is a path-goal situational factor that describes the personal belief that whatever happens to the individual is a matter of luck or fate. external locus of control Adam is a human resource specialist who firmly believes that whatever happens to him is the result of hard work and determination. Which path-goal personal characteristic best describes Adam’s attitude toward himself? Internal locus of control Susan is a college professor. She gives challenging assignments in her class. She expects students to perform at high levels and has confidence in their ability to do so. She uses ______ leadership. Two general categories of situational factors that receive special attention in path-goal theory are the personal characteristics of subordinates and the environmental characteristics of the workplace. Which of the following statements BEST describes the path-goal theory of leadership? It suggests that leaders can use any one of four styles of leadership as required. The purpose of the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model is to determine the appropriate degree of employee participation in decision making. According to the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model, leaders first assess What is being optimized when a leader uses the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model to select the appropriate degree of participation? Which of the following is NOT an example of a decision-making style that is recognized by the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model? Raakel needed to cut her department’s budget by 10%. She called together directors and presented the statistical evidence. She then asked for their suggestions. Raakel used which decision-making style? Raakel needed to cut her department’s budget by 10%. She contacted each one of her directors to present her statistical evidence and get each one’s input. Raakel used which decision-making style? When Marsha purchased an old Victorian, fixer-upper house, people thought she was crazy, but she had a vision for a bed-and-breakfast inn. She had to convince investors that a B&B was needed. According to the Vroom-Yetton-Jago model, Marsha used which Which of the following leadership models suggests that leaders have different working relationships with the better performers among their subordinates than they do with the others? Frank refers to Dan as his “go to guy.” When the project is critical, Dan gets the job. This is an example of a _____ approach to leadership. The presence of highly capable employees and an indifference toward rewards will neutralize leader behavior Subordinate characteristics that may neutralize leadership include all of the following EXCEPT external locus of control Which of the following is a factor that may neutralize or substitute for leadership? _____ leadership is a contemporary perspective that focuses on a leader’s personality and ability to inspire loyalty and enthusiasm. The concept of charismatic leadership is most closely related to President Barack Obama is described as having a lot of self-confidence, a firm conviction in his ideals, and a strong need to influence people. Robert House’s theory says Bush is a ______ leader. When Pamela Forbes Lieberman took over TruServ, it was on the verge of bankruptcy, with spiraling debt, a top-heavy hierarchy, and outdated management. Now debt and inventory are down, as is payroll expense, and TruServ met SEC filing requirements. Which of the following BEST describes Forbes Lieberman in this role? A popular press article identified seven keys to what seems to be transformational leadership. Which of the following is NOT among those? Which of the following is a key element of transformational leadership? stimulating learning experiences When people use power and other resources to obtain what they want in an organization, they are said to be engaged in Which of the following forms of political behavior is MOST likely to involve giving something to someone in exchange for that person’s support? Which of the following is NOT a form of political behavior identified in the text? Which of the following is the form of political behavior in which people try to enhance their image in the eyes of others? Donald Trump is considered an “average” manager, but many view him as larger than life. Trump engages in a lot of After the federal government stepped in to financially help auto makers, the CEOs flew by private jet to D.C. to testify before Congress. The politicians expressed outrage. The CEOs failed How can managers handle political behavior so that it does not do excessive damage? Which of the following is a task characteristic that may substitute for leadership?Substitutes for Leadership
Task characteristics that may substitute for leadership include routiness, availability of feedback, and intrinsic satisfaction. Organizational substitutes include formalization, group cohesion, inflexibility, and a rigid reward structure.
What are the four kinds of leadership styles in the path goal theory?Path-goal theory identifies four types of leadership behavior: Achievement-oriented. Directive path-goal clarifying. Supportive.
What is the basic assumption of situational approaches to leadership?Situational theories of leadership work on the assumption that the most effective style of leadership changes from situation to situation. To be most effective and successful, a leader must be able to adapt his style and approach to diverse circumstances.
How can managers reduce the likelihood of political behavior by subordinates?Second, by providing subordinates with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback, managers reduce the likelihood of political behavior by subordinates. Third, managers should avoid using power if they want to avoid charges of political motivation.
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Subordinate characteristics that may neutralize leadership include all of the following EXCEPT
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